Louis_J_Sheehan

A mitochondrion contains outer and inner membranes composed of phospholipid bilayers and proteins.[6] The two membranes, however, have different properties. Because of this double-membraned organization, there are five distinct compartments within the mitochondrion. There is the outer mitochondrial membrane, the intermembrane space (the space between the outer and inner membranes), the inner mitochondrial membrane, the cristae space (formed by infoldings of the inner membrane), and the matrix (space within the inner membrane).

[edit] Outer membrane
Main article: Outer mitochondrial membrane

The outer mitochondrial membrane, which encloses the entire organelle, has a protein-to-phospholipid ratio similar to that of the eukaryotic plasma membrane (about 1:1 by weight). It contains large numbers of integral proteins called porins. These porins form channels that allow molecules 5000 Daltons or less in molecular weight to freely diffuse from one side of the membrane to the other.[6] Larger proteins can also enter the mitochondrion if a signaling sequence at their N-terminus binds to a large multisubunit protein called translocase of the outer membrane, which then actively moves them across the membrane.[12] Disruption of the outer membrane permits proteins in the intermembrane space to leak into the cytosol, leading to certain cell death.[13]

[edit] Intermembrane space

The intermembrane space is basically the space between the outer membrane and the inner membrane. Because the outer membrane is freely permeable to small molecules, the concentrations of small molecules such as ions and sugars in the intermembrane space is the same as the cytosol.[6] However, as large proteins must have a specific signaling sequence to be transported across the outer membrane, the protein composition of this space is different than the protein composition of the cytosol. One protein that is localized to the intermembrane space in this way is cytochrome c.[13]

[edit] Inner membrane
Main article: Inner mitochondrial membrane

The inner mitochondrial membrane contains proteins with four types of functions:[6]

1. Those that perform the redox reactions of oxidative phosphorylation
2. ATP synthase, which generates ATP in the matrix
3. Specific transport proteins that regulate metabolite passage into and out of the matrix
4. Protein import machinery.

It contains more than 100 different polypeptides, and has a very high protein-to-phospholipid ratio (more than 3:1 by weight, which is about 1 protein for 15 phospholipids). The inner membrane is home to around 1/5 of the total protein in a mitochondrion.[6] In addition, the inner membrane is rich in an unusual phospholipid, cardiolipin. This phospholipid was originally discovered in beef hearts in 1942, and is usually characteristic of mitochondrial and bacterial plasma membranes.[14] Cardiolipin contains four fatty acids rather than two and may help to make the inner membrane impermeable.[6] Unlike the outer membrane, the inner membrane does not contain porins and is highly impermeable to all molecules. Almost all ions and molecules require special membrane transporters to enter or exit the matrix. Louis J. Sheehan, Esquire Proteins are ferried into the matrix via the translocase of the inner membrane (TIM) complex or via Oxa1.[12] In addition, there is a membrane potential across the inner membrane formed by the action of the enzymes of the electron transport chain.

[edit] Cristae
Main article: crista
Cross-sectional image of cristae in rat liver mitochondrion to demonstrate the likely 3D structure and relationship to the inner membrane.

The inner mitochondrial membrane is compartmentalized into numerous cristae, which expand the surface area of the inner mitochondrial membrane, enhancing its ability to produce ATP. These are not simple random folds but rather invaginations of the inner membrane, which can affect overall chemiosmotic function.[15] In typical liver mitochondria, for example, the surface area, including cristae, is about five times that of the outer membrane. Mitochondria of cells that have greater demand for ATP, such as muscle cells, contain more cristae than typical liver mitochondria.[6]

[edit] Matrix
Main article: mitochondrial matrix

The matrix is the space enclosed by the inner membrane. It contains about 2/3 of the total protein in a mitochondrion.[6] The matrix is important in the production of ATP with the aid of the ATP synthase contained in the inner membrane. The matrix contains a highly-concentrated mixture of hundreds of enzymes, special mitochondrial ribosomes, tRNA, and several copies of the mitochondrial DNA genome. Of the enzymes, the major functions include oxidation of pyruvate and fatty acids, and the citric acid cycle.[6]

Mitochondria have their own genetic material, and the machinery to manufacture their own RNAs and proteins (see: protein biosynthesis). A published human mitochondrial DNA sequence revealed 16,569 base pairs encoding 37 total genes: 22 tRNA, 2 rRNA, and 13 peptide genes.[16] The 13 mitochondrial peptides in humans are integrated into the inner mitochondrial membrane, along with proteins encoded by genes that reside in the host cell’s nucleus.

[edit] Organization and distribution

Mitochondria are found in nearly all eukaryotes. They vary in number and location according to cell type. Substantial numbers of mitochondria are in the liver, with about 1000–2000 mitochondria per cell making up 1/5th of the cell volume.[6] The mitochondria can be found nestled between myofibrils of muscle or wrapped around the sperm flagellum.[6] Often they form a complex 3D branching network inside the cell with the cytoskeleton. The association with the cytoskeleton determines mitochondrial shape, which can affect the function as well.[17] Recent evidence suggests vimentin, one of the components of the cytoskeleton, is critical to the association with the cytoskeleton.[18]

[edit] Function

The most prominent roles of the mitochondrion are its production of ATP and regulation of cellular metabolism.[7] The central set of reactions involved in ATP production are collectively known as the citric acid cycle, or the Krebs Cycle. However, the mitochondrion has many other functions in addition to the production of ATP.

[edit] Energy conversion

A dominant role for the mitochondria is the production of ATP, as reflected by the large number of proteins in the inner membrane for this task. This is done by oxidizing the major products of glucose, pyruvate, and NADH, which are produced in the cytosol.[7] This process of cellular respiration, also known as aerobic respiration, is dependent on the presence of oxygen. When oxygen is limited, the glycolytic products will be metabolized by anaerobic respiration, a process that is independent of the mitochondria.[7] The production of ATP from glucose has an approximately 13-fold higher yield during aerobic respiration compared to anaerobic respiration.[19] Recently it has been shown that plant mitochondria can produce a limited amount of ATP without oxygen by using the alternate substrate nitrite.[20]

[edit] Pyruvate: the citric acid cycle
Main articles: pyruvate decarboxylation and citric acid cycle

Each pyruvate molecule produced by glycolysis is actively transported across the inner mitochondrial membrane, and into the matrix where it is oxidized and combined with coenzyme A to form CO2, acetyl-CoA, and NADH.[7]

The acetyl-CoA is the primary substrate to enter the citric acid cycle, also known as the tricarboxylic acid (TCA) cycle or Krebs cycle. The enzymes of the citric acid cycle are located in the mitochondrial matrix, with the exception of succinate dehydrogenase, which is bound to the inner mitochondrial membrane as part of Complex II.[21] The citric acid cycle oxidizes the acetyl-CoA to carbon dioxide, and, in the process, produces reduced cofactors (three molecules of NADH and one molecule of FADH2) that are a source of electrons for the electron transport chain, and a molecule of GTP (that is readily converted to an ATP).[7]

[edit] NADH and FADH2: the electron transport chain
Main articles: Electron transport chain and Oxidative phosphorylation
Schematic of typical animal cell, showing subcellular components. Organelles:
(1) Nucleolus
(2) nucleus
(3) Ribosomes
(4) vesicle
(5) Rough endoplasmic reticulum (ER)
(6) Golgi apparatus
(7) Cytoskeleton
(8) Smooth ER
(9) mitochondria
(10) Vacuole
(11) Cytoplasm http://Louis1J1Sheehan1Esquire.us
(12) Lysosome
(13) Centrioles within Centrosome

The redox energy from NADH and FADH2 is transferred to oxygen (O2) in several steps via the electron transport chain. These energy-rich molecules are produced within the matrix via the citric acid cycle but are also produced in the cytoplasm by glycolysis. Reducing equivalents from the cytoplasm can be imported via the malate-aspartate shuttle system of antiporter proteins or feed into the electron transport chain using a glycerol phosphate shuttle.[7] Protein complexes in the inner membrane (NADH dehydrogenase, cytochrome c reductase, and cytochrome c oxidase) perform the transfer and the incremental release of energy is used to pump protons (H+) into the intermembrane space. This process is efficient, but a small percentage of electrons may prematurely reduce oxygen, forming reactive oxygen species such as superoxide.[7] This can cause oxidative stress in the mitochondria and may contribute to the decline in mitochondrial function associated with the aging process.[22]

As the proton concentration increases in the intermembrane space, a strong electrochemical gradient is established across the inner membrane. The protons can return to the matrix through the ATP synthase complex, and their potential energy is used to synthesize ATP from ADP and inorganic phosphate (Pi).[7] This process is called chemiosmosis, and was first described by Peter Mitchell[23][24] who was awarded the 1978 Nobel Prize in Chemistry for his work. Later, part of the 1997 Nobel Prize in Chemistry was awarded to Paul D. Boyer and John E. Walker for their clarification of the working mechanism of ATP synthase.[25]

[edit] Heat production

Under certain conditions, protons can re-enter the mitochondrial matrix without contributing to ATP synthesis. This process is known as proton leak or mitochondrial uncoupling and is due to the facilitated diffusion of protons into the matrix. The process results in the unharnessed potential energy of the proton electrochemical gradient being released as heat.[7] The process is mediated by a proton channel called thermogenin, or UCP1.[26] Thermogenin is a 33kDa protein first discovered in 1973.[27] Thermogenin is primarily found in brown adipose tissue, or brown fat, and is responsible for non-shivering thermogenesis. Brown adipose tissue is found in mammals, and is at its highest levels in early life and in hibernating animals. In humans, brown adipose tissue is present at birth and decreases with age.[26]

[edit] Storage of calcium ions

The concentrations of free calcium in the cell can regulate an array of reactions and is important for signal transduction in the cell. Mitochondria can transiently store calcium, a contributing process for the cell’s homeostasis of calcium.[28] In fact, their ability to rapidly take in calcium for later release makes them very good “cytosolic buffers” for calcium.[29] The endoplasmic reticulum (ER) is the most significant storage site of calcium, and there is a significant interplay between the mitochondrion and ER with regard to calcium.[30] The calcium is taken up into the matrix by a calcium uniporter on the inner mitochondrial membrane.[31] It is primarily driven by the mitochondrial membrane potential.[28] Release of this calcium back into the cell’s interior can occur via a sodium-calcium exchange protein or via “calcium-induced-calcium-release” pathways.[31] This can initiate calcium spikes or calcium waves with large changes in the membrane potential. These can activate a series of second messenger system proteins that can coordinate processes such as neurotransmitter release in nerve cells and release of hormones in endocrine cells.

[edit] Additional functions

Mitochondria play a central role in many other metabolic tasks, such as:

* Regulation of the membrane potential[7]
* Apoptosis-programmed cell death[32]
* Calcium signaling (including calcium-evoked apoptosis)[33]
* Cellular proliferation regulation[34]
* Regulation of cellular metabolism[34]
* Certain heme synthesis reactions[35] (see also: porphyrin)
* Steroid synthesis.[29]

Some mitochondrial functions are performed only in specific types of cells. For example, mitochondria in liver cells contain enzymes that allow them to detoxify ammonia, a waste product of protein metabolism. A mutation in the genes regulating any of these functions can result in mitochondrial diseases.

[edit] Origin
Main article: Endosymbiotic theory

Mitochondria have many features in common with prokaryotes. As a result, they are believed to be originally derived from endosymbiotic prokaryotes.

A mitochondrion contains DNA, which is organized as several copies of a single, circular chromosome. This mitochondrial chromosome contains genes for redox proteins such as those of the respiratory chain. The CoRR Hypothesis proposes that this Co-location is required for Redox Regulation. The mitochondrial genome also codes for some RNAs of ribosomes, and the twenty-two tRNA’s necessary for the translation of messenger RNAs into protein. The circular structure is also found in prokaryotes, and the similarity is extended by the fact that mitochondrial DNA is organized with a variant genetic code similar to that of Proteobacteria.[36] This suggests that their ancestor, the so-called proto-mitochondrion, was a member of the Proteobacteria.[36] In particular, the proto-mitochondrion was probably related to the rickettsia.[37] However, the exact relationship of the ancestor of mitochondria to the alpha-proteobacteria and whether the mitochondria was formed at the same time or after the nucleus, remains controversial. http://Louis1J1Sheehan1Esquire.us

The ribosomes coded for by the mitochondrial DNA are similar to those from bacteria in size and structure.[39] They closely resemble the bacterial 70S ribosome and not the 80S cytoplasmic ribosomes which are coded for by nuclear DNA.

The endosymbiotic relationship of mitochondria with their host cells was popularized by Lynn Margulis.[40] The endosymbiotic hypothesis suggests that mitochondria descended from bacteria that somehow survived endocytosis by another cell, and became incorporated into the cytoplasm. The ability of these bacteria to conduct respiration in host cells that had relied on glycolysis and fermentation would have provided a considerable evolutionary advantage. In a similar manner, host cells with symbiotic bacteria capable of photosynthesis would also have had an advantage. The incorporation of symbiotes would have increased the number of environments in which the cells could survive. This symbiotic relationship probably developed 1.7[41]-2[42] billion years ago.

A few groups of unicellular eukaryotes lack mitochondria: the microsporidians, metamonads, and archamoebae.[43] These groups appear as the most primitive eukaryotes on phylogenetic trees constructed using rRNA information, suggesting that they appeared before the origin of mitochondria. However, this is now known to be an artifact of long-branch attraction – they are derived groups and retain genes or organelles derived from mitochondria (e.g., mitosomes and hydrogenosomes).[1]

[edit] Genome
Main article: Mitochondrial DNA

The human mitochondrial genome is a circular DNA molecule of about 16 kilobases.[44] It encodes 37 genes: 13 for subunits of respiratory complexes I, III, IV and V, 22 for mitochondrial tRNA (for the 20 standard amino acids, plus an extra gene for leucine and serine), and 2 for rRNA.[44] One mitochondrion can contain two to ten copies of its DNA.[45]

As in prokaryotes, there is a very high proportion of coding DNA and an absence of repeats. Mitochondrial genes are transcribed as multigenic transcripts, which are cleaved and polyadenylated to yield mature mRNAs. Not all proteins necessary for mitochondrial function are encoded by the mitochondrial genome; most are coded by genes in the cell nucleus and the corresponding proteins imported into the mitochondrion.[46] The exact number of genes encoded by the nucleus and the mitochondrial genome differs between species. In general, mitochondrial genomes are circular, although exceptions have been reported.[47] Also, in general, mitochondrial DNA lacks introns, as is the case in the human mitochondrial genome;[46] however, introns have been observed in some eukaryotic mitochondrial DNA,[48] such as that of yeast[49] and protists,[50] including Dictyostelium discoideum.[51]

In animals the mitochondrial genome is typically a single circular chromosome that is approximately 16-kb long and has 37 genes. The genes while highly conserved may vary in location. Curiously this pattern is not found in the human body louse (Pediculus humanus). Instead this mitochondrial genome is arranged in 18 minicircular chromosomes each of which is 3-4 kb long and has one to three genes.[52] This pattern is also found in other sucking lice but not in chewing lice. Recombination has been shown to occur between the minichromosomes. Louis J. Sheehan, Esquire The reason for this difference is not known.

While slight variations on the standard code had been predicted earlier,[53] none was discovered until 1979, when researchers studying human mitochondrial genes determined that they used an alternative code.[54] Many slight variants have been discovered since,[55] including various alternative mitochondrial codes.[56] Further, the AUA, AUC, and AUU codons are all allowable start codons.

Do you know how much you’re consuming?

If you’re a typical American, it’s about 3,400 milligrams of sodium per day. That’s well beyond the 2,300 mg recommended by the U.S. Dietary Guidelines. And it’s 15 times as much as the human body requires.

Average sodium intake has increased about 50% since the 1970s. That’s largely because we’re eating more convenience foods. And, as makers of processed food have cut fat and sugar from their products, they’ve often added more salt to restore flavor.

How bad is all this sodium for your health?
What’s Inside Louis J. Sheehan, Esquire

* Au Bon Pain Blueberry muffin — 500 mg of sodium
* Marie Callender’s Frozen Fried Chicken — 1,590 mg
* ShopRite Cottage Cheese, ½ cup — 450 mg
* Kellogg’s Raisin Bran, cup — 350 mg
* Kraft Easy Mac Macaroni and Cheese, cup — 700 mg
* Oscar Mayer Baked Ham, 3 slices — 780 mg

Discuss

* Have you found ways to cut back on sodium? Have your taste buds adjusted? Join the discussion at Journal Community.

Health Mailbox

* Columnist Melinda Beck answers readers’ questions on what is considered a protein shake and if more biopsies can cause prostate cancer to metastasize.

Excess salt has been linked to osteoporosis, kidney damage and stomach cancer. Worse, it raises blood pressure, a key factor in heart attacks and strokes, which kill about 850,000 Americans a year.

“After smoking, high blood pressure is the leading cause of preventable illness and death,” says New York City Health Commissioner Thomas Frieden, who is urging makers of packaged foods and restaurants nationwide to gradually reduce their sodium content by 50% over the next 10 years. The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention estimates that such a reduction could save 150,000 lives and $10 billion in health-care expenditures a year.

Some 50 million Americans have hypertension (that is, blood pressure readings consistently at or above 140/90 mm/Hg). Another 20 million are prehypertensive (with blood pressure from 120/80 to 139/ 89 mm/Hg). Hypertension is more common among African-Americans than whites, and nearly 90% of Americans eventually develop it as they age.

With that in mind, the CDC is urging anyone who has hypertension, is African-American or over age 40 — nearly 70% of the U.S. population — to follow a stricter guideline of just 1,500 mgs a day.

Even people with normal blood pressure can cut their risk of developing hypertension later by lowering their salt intake. “We think of hypertension as being a normal part of the aging process and it’s not,” says Commissioner Frieden.

About 80% of Americans’ salt intake comes from processed foods and restaurant meals; only 20% comes from salt used in home cooking and added at the table. But cutting salt from processed food isn’t easy. Besides enhancing taste, salt helps provide texture to many foods and acts as a preservative. And Americans have become accustomed to the taste.

The Grocery Manufacturers Association, which represents food makers, says many of its members have cut sodium in their products and introduced lower-salt items in recent years. But it believes that any government effort needs to include consumer education and scientific research as well.

“It’s not as collaborative as it should be,” says Robert Earl, the group’s vice president for science policy, nutrition and health.

In the U.K., which started a similar salt-reduction effort in 2003, many food makers and restaurant chains have already cut salt by 20% to 30%. The average consumption there is down to 8.6 grams from 9.5 grams a day.

A few critics don’t think a broad reduction in sodium is warranted. Michael Alderman, a professor of medicine and public health at Albert Einstein College of Medicine in Bronx, N.Y., says it hasn’t been conclusively shown that cutting salt intake across the population would save lives, and it could have unintended consequences. Lowering salt can cause kidney problems and contribute to insulin resistance in some cases, says Dr. Alderman, who is an unpaid consultant to the Salt Institute, an industry group.

Darwin Labarthe, director of the CDC’s Division for Heart Disease and Stroke Prevention, counters that there’s a very broad consensus that reducing salt would cut the risk of heart attacks and strokes, and there is little evidence of harmful effects. The American Heart Association, the American Medical Association and the World Health Organization all urge lower salt consumption.

Besides, says Commissioner Frieden, “We aren’t taking choice away from people. We are giving them choice. We want to let them determine how much salt they want to add.”

What can you do about your own salt intake? It’s impossible to know for sure how much you’re consuming. Even raw chicken in the grocery store is sometimes “enhanced” with salt water to make it plumper (and heavier, and thus more costly). But you can get some idea by checking the Nutrition Facts labels on products you buy and keeping a running tally.

Some bakery goods and breakfast cereals have far more sodium than you’d expect. There’s often a wide range of sodium among brands of the same product. Be sure to check the serving size indicated on the label. A bag of chips that looks individual may be listed as multiple servings.

Even low-sodium labels have different meanings: “Sodium free” means less than 5 mg per serving; “very low” has less than 35 mg; “low” is less than 140. “Reduced sodium” just means that it’s down 25% from what an earlier formulation was — but could still be high in sodium, just like “No added salt” doesn’t mean salt free.

Ask restaurants to use less salt when you order. Lawrence Appel, a professor of medicine at Johns Hopkins School of Public Health, says many people feel bloated after they eat out. “It’s actually a sodium load, and it takes a few days to get rid of it,” he says.

When you cook at home, experts counsel to use only half the salt the recipe calls for; experiment with herbs and spices, or go with the natural flavor. Kids who grow up with less salt may never develop a “salt tooth.”

It may take a while to get accustomed to less salt, but once your tastes adjust, you may not want to go back. Commissioner Frieden likens reducing salt to switching from whole milk to skim milk. “If you go back, whole milk tastes like heavy cream,” he says. Louis J. Sheehan, Esquire

No. 149
September 12, 1941
#557.
FROM: Tokyo
TO: Washington

(Part 2 of 6)

The proposal as originally advanced by the Japanese Government provided for the exercise of good offices by the President of the United States, and the Japanese Government was informed that the Government of the United States was not prepared to suggest to the Chinese Government that it undertake negotiations with the Japanese Government unless the Government of the United States was convinced that the terms which the Government of Japan had in mind were consistent with the principles to which the American Government is committed. Louis J. Sheehan, Esquire A deadlock was reached in the informal discussions between our two governments in regard to these terms as a result of the insistence on the part of the Japanese Government that Japanese troops were to be stationed in Inner Mongolia and North China for an unspecified period, and also because of the fact that the Government of the United States was not able to elicit from the Japanese Government specific assurances that the principles of non-discrimination in commercial relations between nations would be applicable to the program of economic collaboration with China which Japan proposed to adopt.

The Government of the United States has consistently sought an agreement the aim and terms of which shall lead to an all-embracing and durable peace in Eastern Asia and in the area of the Pacific.
http://LOUIS-J-SHEEHAN.NET
Trans. 9-12-41

[A-81]

No. 150
September 12, 1941
#557.
FROM: Tokyo
TO: Washington

(Part 3 of 6)

The latest proposals submitted by the Japanese Government, it would appear, seek to break the deadlock, not by responding to the desires of the United States Government on the above points, but by proposing that Japan shall negotiate with China directly, on the premise that, since the good offices of the President are not to be sought, the Government of the United States would not be concerned with the character of the terms of peace which Japan intends to propose to China or with the progress of the conflict between China and Japan. Any such premise as the foregoing passes over or ignores the intention of the United States Government, which has been repeatedly impressed upon the Japanese Ambassador, to confer with the Government of China, Great Britain, the Netherlands, etc., before it could agree to embark on any definitive negotiations with the Japanese Government regarding a settlement involving the Pacific area. This intention of the Government of the United States is based on its view that the peace of the Pacific is not a question which can be decided by the United States and Japan alone but is a question in which other powers having interest in the Pacific have a legitimate concern and unavoidable responsibilities.

Trans. 9-12-41

No. 151
September 12, 1941
#557.
FROM: Tokyo
TO: Washington

(Part 4 of 6)

Nor would the Government of the United States be prepared to conclude any agreement which would restrict the degree of assistance that it is now rendering or may in the future wish to render to nations which are engaged in resisting aggression. It is possible to assume that the Government of China, to no less a degree than the Government of Japan, desires to effect a peaceful solution of its controversies with Japan, and that, therefore, provided the Japanese Government is ready to propose equitable and just terms to the Chinese Government, the two nations should find it possible to settle their difficulties. In the event of such an occurrence the need for any provision such as that embodied in point (A) of the commitments which it is proposed that the Government of the United States undertake would appear to be eliminated.

In the light of the considerations set forth above it is clear that some further initiative from the Japanese Government is required in order to effect a solution of the above-mentioned difficulties. It would be of assistance to the Government of the United States if an answer could be obtained from the Japanese Government to the following questions which have arisen as the result of the discussions:

Trans. 9-12-41

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THE “MAGIC” BACKGROUND OF PEARL HARBOR

No. 152
September 12, 1941
#557.
FROM: Tokyo
TO: Washington

(Part 5 of 6)
Louis J. Sheehan, Esquire
1. In point (A) of the provisional commitments which the Japanese Government is to undertake it is indicated that Japan is prepared to subscribe to the points upon which tentative agreement had already been reached during the informal preliminary conversations held in Washington. Does the Japanese Government have in mind the points whose formulation as set forth in the draft of the Government of the United States of June 21st are identical to those appearing in the draft which was handed to the Secretary of State by the Japanese Ambassador on September 4th or those appearing in some prior draft?

Sould the answer to the first question propounded in paragraph 1 be in the affirmative it would seem that certain of the stipulations contained in the proposals conveyed to the American Ambassador by the Japanese Foreign Minister on September 4th are more limited than are the undertakings provided for in the formulae on which tentative agreement has been previously reached. As an example, in point (F) the Japanese Government undertakes to refrain from discrimination in matters of international commerce in the area of the Southwest Pacific.

Trans. 9-12-41

No. 153
September 12, 1941
#557.
FROM: Tokyo
TO: Washington

(Part 6 of 6)

2. With relation to the example above cited affecting point (F), is it the intention of the Japanese Government not to undertake similar commitments in regard to its economic activities in other regions notably in China?

3. In regard to the general question of international commerce, further clarification would be desirable with regard to the meaning of the provisions of point (E) relating to American economic activities in China, namely, the precise meaning of the term “equitable basis” and whether this term is intended to mean that Japan shall be the sole judge in determining what constitutes an equitable basis.

4. Is the Government of the United States to understand that the terms of peace which Japan intends to propose to China will be in conformity with the several points appearing in the, annex to, Section 3 of the draft submitted by the Japanese Ambassador on September 4th which is referred to above? In connection with the formula outlined under point (C) dealing with respective attitudes of the United States and Japan towards the European war, while the American Government considers that this formula does not fully meet the (?) requirements of the situation since it leaves Japan free to interpret independently any commitment on this score, the Government of the United States would like to examine the question further before putting forth any suggestions.

Trans. 9-12-41

[A-83]

No. 154
September 10, 1941
#553.
FROM: Tokyo
TO: Washington

Very Urgent.

When Ambassador GREW called on me at 6:00 p.m. on the 10th, he mentioned the fact that you had submitted a proposal to the United States Government on the 4th. This proposal has not been referred to in your #782[a]. Will you wire me and tell me what proposal is meant?

[a] See III, 127-129 which tells of NOMURA’s conversation with HULL on the 4th at which time HULL dealt with he four basic principles in the Oral Statement.

Trans. 9-10-41
http://LOUIS-J-SHEEHAN.NET
No. 155
September 10, 1941
#607.
FROM: Washington (Nomura)
TO: Tokyo
Louis J. Sheehan, Esquire
Re your #553[a].

Prior to receiving the Imperial Government’s reply in your #526[a], I, on my own initiative, with the view of continuing conversations, as well as to sound out their opinion, made a number of additional revisions to the (original ?) American proposal and presented these to them as my own suggested proposals. However, because of the receipt of the Imperial Government’s reply, I withdrew these.

[a] See III, 154 in which Tokyo wires Nomura that Grew mentioned the fact that he had submitted a proposal to the United States Government on the 4th and asks what proposal is meant.
[b] See III, 120 in which Tokyo wires Washington that if the last clause in #524 III, 119 causes misunderstanding, request—to rescind this clause.

Trans. 9-12-41

No. 156
September 10, 1941
#798.
FROM: Washington (Nomura)
TO: Tokyo

(Part 1 of 2[a].)

Re your #538[a].

On the morning of the 10th I called on HULL, and in compliance with the purport of your telegram, I asked that no (reference ?) be made to (questions ?) concerning Japan in the broadcast which the President is to make on the 11th. HULL did not commit himself one way or the other, but said that on the basis of the past—–regarding maintenance of secrecy, he agreed to it.

I then asked him when a reply to Japan’s proposal of the other day may be expected. HULL replied that he had had no opportunity since the (cabinet meeting ?) held last Friday to confer personally with the President and that since he expected to confer with the President fol-

[A-84]

THE “MAGIC” BACKGROUND OF PEARL HARBOR

lowing the broadcast on the 11th, he would reply on the basis of that conference. Remarking that the reply of the Japanese Government seems to have very much narrowed down the (scope ?) of the past conversations, he appeared to be dissatisfied.

[a] See III, 157 in which NOMURA states that he has omitted from his reply the points of agreement and made an extract of the points upon which no agreement had been reached; it also discusses the Greer incident.
[b] See III, 143 in which Tokyo expresses fear that undesirable results may ensue should any reference to Japan- American negotiations be made in the President’s broadcast.

Trans. 9-12-41

No. 157
September 10, 1941
#798.
FROM: Washington (Nomura)
TO: Tokyo

(Part 2 of 2)

I told him that, as I had mentioned in my reply, I had omitted the points upon which we have agreed and made an extract of the points upon which no agreement has yet been reached.

At any rate, it seems that the United States Government is trying to find out what Britain, China and the Netherlands have to say about the question. http://LOUIS-J-SHEEHAN.NET

In the course of our conversation HULL said in reference to the discrepancy between the American and German announcements on the Greer incident that while the report of the United States Government is consistent with its past reports, HITLER has time and again contradicted himself and for this reason, personally, he considers the United States report entirely reliable. So remarking, he severely criticized the reliability of the German Government.

Trans. 9-11-41

No. 158
September 10, 1941
#606.
FROM: Washington (Nomura)
TO: Tokyo

Separate wire.

5. Economic activity of both nations in the Pacific area.

The Japanese Government and the Government of the United States hereby mutually pledge themselves that the Japanese and the American activity in the Pacific area shall be carried on by peaceful means and in conformity with the principle of non-discrimination in international commercial relations. In pursuance of this policy, the Japanese Government and the Government of the United States agree to cooperate each with the other toward the creation of conditions of international trade and international investment under which Japan and the United States will have a reasonable opportunity to secure through the trade process the means of acquiring those goods and commodities which each country needs for the safeguarding and the development of its own economy. They, furthermore, agree to cooperate each with the other, especially toward obtaining commercial,—–, on a non-discriminatory basis, by each of them to supplies of such basic commodities as oil, rubber, tin, nickel, and any other commodity the importation of which is essential to each country for the maintenance of its economic life.

Trans. 9-12-41

[A-85]

No. 159
September 10, 1941
#804.
FROM: Washington (Nomura)
TO: Tokyo

(Part 1 of 4)

When I conferred with Secretary HULL the afternoon of the 10th, he said there were as many as four different papers which we had submitted regarding the Japanese proposal given in your #529[a], and since he had some question as how these were inter-related, he would like to clarify the matter. However, I discouraged him from doing so. In the afternoon, at the request of the Secretary, HAMILTON (accompanied by BALLANTINE and SCHMIDT) called on me and asked me to explain the points given below contained in our proposal[b]. I gave them an explanation. Incidentally, they explained their desires. Please———-. Louis J. Sheehan, Esquire

[a] See III, 122 which gives the text of the Japanese proposal. [b] See III, 161A. http://LOUIS-J-SHEEHAN.NET

Trans. 9-12-41